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Journal Article
Do Credit Supply Shocks Constrain Employment Growth of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises?
Baslandze, Salomé; Minoiu, Camelia; Penciakova, Veronika; Willis, Jonathan L. (2023-09-25)
Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) made outsized contributions to net employment growth during the pandemic recession and recovery. However, credit conditions have tightened significantly during the past year and might hinder growth for small firms going forward. Using data on bank lending to small businesses and employment growth, we estimate that a tightening in bank credit supply of 1 percentage point is associated with an 11 percent decline in SMEs' net job creation rate. This estimate indicates that a bank credit tightening about one-third the size of the tightening observed ...
Policy Hub , Volume 2023 , Issue 5

Journal Article
The Price of Delay: Supply Disruptions, Product Availability, and Strategic Pricing during the Pandemic
Baslandze, Salomé; Fuchs, Simon (2026-06-25)
During 2020–23, firms did not just face higher costs but faced an unusually tight constraint on product availability. Imports often did not arrive when expected, and port congestion and vessel delays made replenishment unusually uncertain. In Baslandze and Fuchs (2026), we study how these disruptions showed up in consumer prices using newly linked micro data that match shipment-level bills of lading to high-frequency consumer transaction prices. The evidence points to sizable pass-through from delivery shortfalls to prices, above and beyond the standard pass-through of costs. Prices also ...
Policy Hub , Volume 2026 , Issue 4 , Pages 16

Discussion Paper
Changes in State Unemployment Insurance Rules during the COVID-19 Outbreak in the U.S.
Xie, Zoe (2020-04-14)
The COVID-19 pandemic led to an unprecedented expansion in unemployment insurance (UI) eligibility across states. While more than forty states had modified UI rules by the end of March, not all states responded in the same way. In this article, I summarize the changes to state UI rules in response to the crisis and explore factors that have contributed to the variation in states’ responses.
Policy Hub , Paper 2020-2

Discussion Paper
Impacts of COVID-19: Mitigation Efforts versus Herd Immunity
Kopecky, Karen A.; Zha, Tao (2020-04-27)
The rapid spread of COVID-19 is having devastating effects on the global economy. With death curves beginning to bend, governments will soon need to determine when and how to relax lockdown measures. The crucial question is: what are the public health consequences of reopening the economy? In this article, we argue that the observed decline in daily deaths could be due to two scenarios: social distancing measures and herd immunity. Both the widely used SIR model and the data collected thus far cannot distinguish these two scenarios. Such an identiﬁcation problem generates a large degree of ...
Policy Hub , Paper 2020-3

Journal Article
When Tight Is Too Tight: The Federal Reserve’s Response to the Post-World War II Spike in Inflation
Croteau, Nicholas; Mandelman, Federico S. (2023-11-09)
With the end of World War II, the massive expansion of defense spending came to a halt, and the money supply financing it quickly stabilized. However, the real money supply declined further with the transitory inflationary upswing of 1946–47, which fueled deflationary expectations, passively pushing up real interest rates and triggering the 1949 recession. We compare the Fed’s current stance to this historical episode, concluding that the ongoing tightening is already sufficient to normalize monetary conditions to prepandemic trends. This article also discusses how fiscal policy might ...
Policy Hub , Volume 2023 , Issue 8 , Pages 9

Journal Article
Money Aggregates, Debt, Pent-Up Demand, and Inflation: Evidence from WWII
Mandelman, Federico S. (2021-05-17)
The COVID-19 pandemic produced a massive decline in U.S. consumption in 2020 and swift fiscal and monetary policy responses. After growing at a rather steady 5 percent rate for decades, the money supply (M2) increased 25 percent over the past year alongside unprecedented fiscal support, raising some inflation concerns. Concurrent with the reopening of the economy as vaccines roll out, this article derives some lessons from the U.S. experience during and after WWII. The debt-to-GDP ratio increased from 40 percent to 110 percent because of the war effort. Most of it was financed by Fed debt ...
Policy Hub , Volume 2021 , Issue 4 , Pages 19

Discussion Paper
Wage Growth over Unemployment Spells
Silos, Pedro; Fang, Lei (2020-07-13)
This article looks at the wage growth associated with a spell of unemployment during the past three recessions. Our main findings are threefold. First, half of all unemployed workers experience a lower hourly wage once they regain employment. Second, after an unemployment spell, older workers and those without a college degree experience lower wage rowth. Third, workers who regain employment in a different industry than they were in previously tend to experience a substantial wage decline. The analysis suggests that the COVID-19 pandemic not only led to unprecedented job losses, but it could ...
Policy Hub , Paper 2020-09

Journal Article
Will Wage Growth Alone Get Workers Back Into the Labor Market? Not Likely.
Hotchkiss, Julie L. (2022-02-24)
This article finds that compared to baby boomers of the same age, millennials' labor force participation decisions are only about three-quarters as responsive to wage changes, and Generation X's participation decisions are only about half as responsive. These differences are not good news for employers trying to coax workers back into the labor market during a robust pandemic recovery. Using the most recent estimates, from 2019 data, the latest 6 percent year-over-year increase in average hourly pay reported by the US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) is expected to only close 16 percent of ...
Policy Hub , Volume 2022 , Issue 1

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